Every day, adults conduct cost-benefit analyses in some form for decisions large and small, economic and personal: Bring a lunch or go out? Buy or rent? Remain single or start a family? All are balances of risk and reward.

According to psychologists, infants weigh risks and rewards, too, but appear to boil down their decision-making to this: Do I want to?

But according to published in the August print issue of the journal Cognition, it turns out that the decision-making process for older infants and toddlers is more nuanced than that. According to 天美影视传媒 psychology professor and lead author , 18-month-olds can make choices based on how much effort they want to expend, or on whether they like the people involved. That kind of cost-benefit analysis, she said, can guide the development of early pro-social behavior, like helping and sharing.

鈥淏y the middle of the second year of life, infants are making very sophisticated social decisions,鈥� Sommerville said. 鈥淲e tend to think of situations in which infants help or want to help others as either cute and endearing, or as a result of their being finely tuned to the needs of others. But they also are weighing the costs of their actions against the perceived benefits.鈥�

Infants鈥� decision-making is, of course, something to be evaluated based on behavior, not interviews. Researchers in this study focused on the ways these relatively new walkers and talkers could demonstrate interest and effort.

Sommerville and her colleagues examined how 160 toddlers decided whether to help an adult under two separate conditions. All the children were about 18 months of age.

In the first scenario, a researcher introduced a child to five vinyl blocks, each a different color and weight 鈥� from a quarter-pound to 5 pounds 鈥� which the child would discover upon lifting it. A facilitator would then clean up the blocks, appearing to inadvertently leave a block behind. For some children, the randomly assigned 鈥渇orgotten鈥� block was the lightest of the blocks, while for others it was the heaviest that the child was able to lift. As the researcher proceeded to build a block tower on the other side of the room, she would ask the child for the missing block. Of those toddlers with the light, 鈥渓ow-effort鈥� block, 67 percent carried it to the researcher, while 38 percent of the children with the heavy, 鈥渉igh-effort鈥� block carried it over.

鈥淭hese findings were of great interest because they show that infants decide whether to help an adult based on how much effort it requires of them. This required them to remember information from an earlier part of the study (how heavy the block was) and to anticipate the impact that information would have on their own behavior (how hard it would be to carry it across the room). So infants are much better at remembering and projecting the amount of effort an action requires, and using that information to make social decisions, than we previously imagined鈥�

The second 鈥渉elp鈥� scenario focused on intrinsic motivation 鈥� a situation that didn鈥檛 involve an immediate reward, but instead set up a potential social benefit: a person whom the child could see as 鈥渓ike鈥� them. Through engagement with toys, the experiment established whether a child and adult would share an interest in the same toy (the 鈥渟hared preference鈥� condition), or would be interested in separate toys (the 鈥渙pposite preference鈥� condition). Then the adult would move to the other side of the room and build a block tower, leaving a 4-pound block behind. Over two trials of this experiment with different participants, 75 percent of toddlers in the shared-preference condition carried the block over and helped the adult, while only 57 percent of toddlers in the opposite-preference condition brought the block to the adult.

Searching for common ground is typical human social behavior, Sommerville said. Adults tend to spend time with people who share the same likes and values 鈥� known in psychology circles as establishing one鈥檚 own 鈥渋n-group.鈥�

鈥淚n child development, there are benefits to interacting with in-group members beyond mere liking,鈥� she said. 鈥淚n-group members are more likely to be able to teach you something culturally relevant, like what an object is called or how it works. So a bias to interact with others who are like you not only has immediate positive benefits, but is also beneficial down the road.鈥�

As the field of developmental psychology has shifted to focus more on how behaviors evolve rather than how they mark specific life stages, cost-benefit analysis is ripe for study, Somerville said.

鈥淭hese findings suggest that infants are able to weigh multiple factors in deciding whether or not to help someone. This is something that adults and older children do: A decision to lend someone money might be a product of both how much money they need 鈥� is it $5 or $500? 鈥� and how close we are to them. We might be willing to lend $5 but not $500 to a neighbor, while we are willing to lend $500 to a close friend or family member,鈥� Sommerville said. 鈥淥ur results suggest that infants鈥� pro-social behavior is more complex than previously thought, and isn鈥檛 driven by a single factor.鈥�

Sommerville鈥檚 team is currently exploring the impact of parental praise on motivation, and, in a separate study, whether much younger infants 鈥� around 6 months of age 鈥� will exert more effort for an interesting toy than for a boring one.

鈥淚f we are correct, these findings would suggest that cost-benefit analyses play a central role in infants鈥� decision-making even just as they are able to produce actions,鈥� she said.

The study鈥檚 co-authors were postdoctoral researcher , graduate student Elizabeth Enright and lab manager Rachel Horton, all of the UW Department of Psychology鈥檚 , as well as Miranda Sitch and Susanne Kirchner-Adelhardt, who helped conduct the research while at the UW.

The study was funded by the John Templeton Foundation and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

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For more information, contact Sommerville at 206-616-3090 or sommej@uw.edu.

Grant number: 1R01HD076949-01

This video acquaints the viewer with the puppets and introduces the idea of which is socially dominant.

The charismatic colleague, the natural leader, the life of the party 鈥� all are personal qualities that adults recognize instinctively. These socially dominant types, according to repeated studies, also tend to accomplish and earn more, from accolades and material wealth to friends and romantic partners.

This social hierarchy may be so naturally ingrained, 天美影视传媒 researchers say, that toddlers as young as 17 months old not only can perceive who is dominant, but also anticipate that the dominant person will receive more rewards.

The , led by UW psychology professor and graduate student , appears in the July issue of the journal Cognition.

“This tells us that babies are sorting through things at a higher level than we thought. They’re attending to and taking into consideration fairly sophisticated concepts,” Sommerville said. “If, early on, you see that someone who is more dominant gets more stuff, and as adults, we see that and say that’s how the world is, it might be because these links are present early in development.”

The study evaluated the reactions of 80 toddlers, each of whom watched three short videos of puppets in simple social situations. Researchers measured the length of time the children focused on the outcome of each video in an effort to determine what they noticed.

Measuring a baby’s “looking time” is a common metric used in studies of cognition and comprehension in infants, the researchers explained.

“Really young babies can’t talk to us, so we have to use other measures such as how long they attend to events, to gauge their understanding of these events,” said Enright. “Babies will look longer at things they find unexpected.”

The same is true of adults, she pointed out. Adults will focus on the result of a magic trick, for instance, or on a car accident on the side of the road. Both events defy expectations about what normally happens.

While other research has found that infants and young children expect equal distributions and react positively toward sharing, the UW study is one of the first to explore the impact of a personality trait, such as social dominance, on those expectations.

For the study, each toddler watched an introductory video at least six times; this brief clip aimed to establish the “dominant” puppet in the scene 鈥� the one who appeared to win a minor competition with a second puppet over a special chair. Then each child watched a second set of videos so that researchers could compare how the toddler reacted to various outcomes. The researchers employed puppets, rather than people, for the videos because the puppets look essentially the same, offer no facial or other emotional reaction, and don’t draw an infant’s attention the way that differences among humans might, said Sommerville.

In this video, a 17-month-old child watches as an actor doles out the same number of Legos to two puppets. At the end of the clip, 聽the actor’s face is blacked out to allow the child to focus on the Legos.

The researchers set up three narrative scenarios using the puppets. In one scenario, a clip showed the dominant puppet receiving more Legos, while another clip showed both puppets receiving the same number. In the other scenario, a clip again showed the puppets receiving the same number of Legos, while a different clip showed the submissive puppet receiving more.

The study found that toddlers looked an average of 7 seconds longer at the videos in which the weaker puppet received more Legos, or when the two puppets received the same number, versus when the dominant puppet received more Legos. This indicates that the children didn’t expect those outcomes, Sommerville said, because their lingering gaze suggests their brains were continuing to process the information on the screen.

The results appear to demonstrate toddlers’ expectation that a dominant individual receives more resources and that toddlers are able to adjust their thinking about resource distribution based on their perceptions of social status of the recipients, the researchers said.

However, the experiment suggests other questions, which Enright is exploring now in a new study: What other traits could inform infants’ and young children’s expectations about resources? Using a similar approach with puppets, researchers will show toddlers a series of videos that aims to portray competence 鈥� a puppet who does a better job at completing a goal than another puppet 鈥� and test expectations about which puppet receives the reward.

“Is the issue dominance? From the videos, it could be that the dominant one was perceived as more persistent or competent,” Enright said. “This could be the very start of finding out what infants know about social status.”

The study was funded by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the John Templeton Foundation. Hyowon Gweon of Stanford University is also an author.

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For more information, contact Enright at akee@uw.edu or Sommerville at 206-616-3090 or sommej@uw.edu

Grant number: NIH R01-HD076949-01